Perea, a coca farmer in Meta, Colombia, uprooted coca bushes on his small river‑only farm and replaced them with cassava and plantain in 2023 as part of the National Comprehensive Programme for the Substitution of Illicit Crops (PNIS). He said he had not received the promised financial support, and flood‑prone roads made selling his produce difficult, leading him to resume coca planting in 2024. PNIS, created under the 2016 peace deal with the Farc guerrilla group, aimed to replace illicit crops with legal alternatives and provided technical assistance. The program promised each household 36 million Colombian pesos over two years, but payments were often delayed and technical support was inconsistent, especially in remote areas with limited state presence. Record coca cultivation now exceeds 250,000 hectares, according to the United Nations, and many participants in substitution programmes report feeling abandoned. Lucas Marín Llanes, a Colombian researcher, said coca’s quick harvest cycles and predictable prices make it attractive compared with other crops. He also noted that coca cultivation can increase municipal GDP by up to 10 % in some regions between 2014 and 2019, highlighting its economic role for some communities. Elena Hernández, who joined PNIS in 2017, described delayed payments and a lack of coordination among agencies, while the program’s momentum weakened after the 2018 presidential transition under Iván Duque and the 2022 administration of Gustavo Petro. Michael Weintraub, co‑director of the Centre for the Study of Security and Drugs, said continued demand for cocaine in the United States and Europe sustains coca production, and the fragile security environment hampers program implementation. Gloria Miranda, director of the agency overseeing substitution, described coca as a business and said the newer RenHacemos initiative seeks to diversify local economies beyond crop replacement, offering road improvements, education access and digital connectivity. Doralba Bejarano, a farmer from Puerto Rico in Meta, reported that government support improved her situation, allowing her to stop hiding coca paste and sell non‑coca crops. The challenges faced by substitution programmes reflect both domestic obstacles and external pressure from drug demand, leaving many farmers uncertain about their future.