A study in Reviews of Geophysics reports that worldwide demand for sand and gravel has more than doubled since 2000, with 80% of current demand originating in Asia.

Researchers examined extraction records dating back to 1974 and found that removal rates often exceed natural sediment replacement severalfold.

In 2024, concrete production used 28 billion tonnes of sand and gravel, a volume driven by rapid urban development in China and India. Extraction from riverbeds across Asia and Africa has weakened riverbanks, lowered groundwater levels, and increased coastal salt intrusion, according to the study.

The authors call for improved monitoring and sustainable extraction practices, noting that comprehensive global data on sand flows remain limited.